急求鋼結(jié)構(gòu)論文并帶翻譯 急！急！急求：關(guān)于鋼結(jié)構(gòu)方面的英語文章一篇及其中文翻譯。郵箱...
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<英文版> Talling building and Steel construction
Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.
The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.
Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.
In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.
Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.
Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.
Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York
Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.
Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.
Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.
Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns andspandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.
Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.
Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.
Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.
Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.
Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s
Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.
The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.
Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.
In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.
The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.
A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.
The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.
The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the oldheavy masonry.
Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.
Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.
The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.
World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.
The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.
Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.
Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.
隨便弄弄吧 我當(dāng)然就是用翻譯器翻的，然后自己改改，反正老師也看不懂，沒特別明顯的錯(cuò)誤就好了，還要跟老師打好關(guān)系，會(huì)讓你過的
這個(gè)人是直接在網(wǎng)上復(fù)制的！不是他寫的！http://www.tianyablog.com/blogger/post_show.asp?BlogID=1672467&PostID=15655784
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 急求機(jī)械論文摘要英語翻譯
來安縣面錐： ______ The design of Block entitled rocker shaft technology and equipment design and CAD / CAM. From Chaoyang Diesel Engine Company Limited. This is designed to be completed in Block 195 engine rocker shaft mold design, Rocker Shaft Tower ...
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 求一篇關(guān)于土建的質(zhì)量控制的論文,3000~5000字就行 -
來安縣面錐： ______ 淺析監(jiān)理對(duì)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程施工質(zhì)量的控制 【摘 要】 在建筑領(lǐng)域,鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程的優(yōu)越性越來越來被人們所認(rèn)同,質(zhì)量問題也越來越來引起人們的重視,加強(qiáng)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程施工質(zhì)量監(jiān)理工作,有現(xiàn)實(shí)意義和必要性. 【關(guān)鍵詞】鋼結(jié)構(gòu) 質(zhì)量 監(jiān)理 控制 ...
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 鋼結(jié)構(gòu)在現(xiàn)代建筑中的作用(包括缺陷) -
來安縣面錐： ______ 摘要:鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)在超高層建筑中由于自重大,柱子所占的建筑面積比率越來越大,在超高層建筑中采用鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)受到質(zhì)疑;同時(shí)高強(qiáng)度鋼材應(yīng)運(yùn)而生,在超高層建筑中采用部分鋼結(jié)構(gòu)或全鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的理論研究與設(shè)計(jì)建造可說是同步前...
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 急!!!求論文英文摘要! -
來安縣面錐： ______ With the rise of Internet communication technologies, the network literature is, with its strong momentum of rapid development. In view of this, the network literature and the...
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 幫忙翻譯土木工程畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)論文摘要 -
來安縣面錐： ______ abstract reinforced concrete structure with good mechanical properties and more longer fire-resistant time than steel structure can give full play to concret's and reinforcing steel's mecahnical properties.there are many advantages of reinforced ...
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 探析建筑結(jié)構(gòu)的穩(wěn)定性論文 -
來安縣面錐： ______ 摘要: 我國實(shí)行改革開放政策以來,伴隨國家經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的主旋律,輕鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建筑也在中國建筑領(lǐng)域-枝獨(dú)秀 得到迅猛發(fā)展.-方面已建成了大量的輕鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建筑,另一方面也成長了一大批較有規(guī)模的輕鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建設(shè)企業(yè),并且在技術(shù)領(lǐng)域逐步形成了...
鎮(zhèn)毓15549192701： 求工程合同管理論文一篇 -
來安縣面錐： ______ 某毛紡廠建設(shè)工程,由英國某紡織企業(yè)出資85%,中國某省紡織工業(yè)總公司出資15%成立的合資企業(yè)(以下簡稱A方),總投資約為1800萬美元,總建筑面積22610平方米,其中土建總投資為3000多萬元人民...
兩部分不會(huì)弄，你加我QQ我發(fā)給你吧，加分啊395886292
<英文版> Talling building and Steel construction
Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.
The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.
Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.
In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.
Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.
Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.
Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York
Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.
Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.
Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.
Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns andspandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.
Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.
Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.
Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.
Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.
Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s
Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible to produce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.
The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.
Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.
In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.
The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.
A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.
The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so, a small crew completed the work in a few months.
The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the oldheavy masonry.
Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.
Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.
The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting systems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.
World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empire State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made by bolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.
The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.
Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.
Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.
隨便弄弄吧 我當(dāng)然就是用翻譯器翻的，然后自己改改，反正老師也看不懂，沒特別明顯的錯(cuò)誤就好了，還要跟老師打好關(guān)系，會(huì)讓你過的
這個(gè)人是直接在網(wǎng)上復(fù)制的！不是他寫的！http://www.tianyablog.com/blogger/post_show.asp?BlogID=1672467&PostID=15655784
畢業(yè)論文中翻譯英語從那找英語原文
土木工程專業(yè)的主要課程包括工程數(shù)學(xué)、土木工程測量、土木工程材料、畫法幾何及工程制圖、材料力學(xué)、結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)、彈性力學(xué)、流體力學(xué)、土力學(xué)、混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)原理、鋼結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)原理、橋梁工程、道路勘測設(shè)計(jì)、路基路面工程、土木工程施工與組織、土木工程專業(yè)英語等。畢業(yè)生可在政府機(jī)關(guān)建設(shè)職能部門、機(jī)關(guān)及工礦企事業(yè)...
求翻譯成日文
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求英文翻譯,猜測為鋼結(jié)構(gòu)英文教材中的一部分,是第六章,名稱為Lateral...
標(biāo)題的正確理解是：梁側(cè)向屈曲 在生活中的Lateral buckling of beams也能理解為：梁的側(cè)向屈曲
陳志華代表性著作
陳志華先生在其學(xué)術(shù)生涯中，出版了一系列具有代表性的著作，為結(jié)構(gòu)工程領(lǐng)域做出了重要貢獻(xiàn)。以下是他的主要作品列表：1. 《建筑鋼結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)》，由他擔(dān)任主編，于2004年在天津大學(xué)出版社出版，深入探討了鋼結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)的相關(guān)理論和實(shí)踐。2. 《平板網(wǎng)架的分析、設(shè)計(jì)與施工》，作為譯著者，他在2000年翻譯并由...
再翻譯點(diǎn)吧
具體來講,下面的列表強(qiáng)調(diào)一些在鋼結(jié)構(gòu)方面必需的研究：系統(tǒng)可靠性工具已經(jīng)發(fā)展到一個(gè)成熟度很高的層次。這些工具應(yīng)該被用于橋梁和建筑結(jié)構(gòu)的研究，從而適應(yīng)結(jié)構(gòu)的剩余壽命并且巧妙地設(shè)計(jì)出經(jīng)濟(jì)的維修和更新業(yè)務(wù) 。儀器儀表、數(shù)據(jù)傳送及多大規(guī)模計(jì)算方面的新發(fā)展將使研究者了解更多在嚴(yán)重沖擊下結(jié)構(gòu)的反應(yīng),因此...
鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程專業(yè)一級(jí) 的英語翻譯。謝謝。
鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程專業(yè)承包一級(jí)：Class-A Steel Structure Project Professional Construction 這是我們公司的英文網(wǎng)站上的表述，應(yīng)該夠?qū)I(yè)的。
100分求幫忙:土木工程學(xué)科名稱翻譯成英文
basic principle of Concrete Frame 3The Construction Device Engineering 4 The Frame Mechanical 5 The Frame Masonry 6 The Course Design of Frame Masonry 7 The Community Psychology 8 The Soil Mechanics 9 The Leisure Agriculture and Management 10 The Operations Research 全是自己翻譯的 ...
英文譯中文,請(qǐng)幫我翻譯,謝謝您!
鋼筋結(jié)構(gòu)就像避雷針。在環(huán)境方面，它是高水準(zhǔn)的，很明顯，我認(rèn)為他是最好的體育場。我期待著能在奧運(yùn)會(huì)后走進(jìn)鳥巢。奧運(yùn)觀摩記 夜晚是永恒的 在2008年的8月8號(hào)，8點(diǎn)整。北京奧運(yùn)會(huì)開幕了。開幕式在大約一個(gè)小時(shí)內(nèi)展現(xiàn)了中國的文化。它讓世界感受到中國深遠(yuǎn)的文化。在天空中燃放的焰火很漂亮。在那時(shí)...
潘際炎主要論著
潘際炎在1983年的《中國鐵道科學(xué)》上發(fā)表了關(guān)于栓焊鋼結(jié)構(gòu)疲勞的論文，對(duì)鋼橋的疲勞特性進(jìn)行了深入研究。他對(duì)中國鐵路鋼橋的發(fā)展也有深入探討，如1986年的《鋼結(jié)構(gòu)》雜志上，他分析了鋼橋的發(fā)展趨勢和挑戰(zhàn)。潘際炎對(duì)15MnVNq鋼的性能進(jìn)行了深入分析，并提出了改進(jìn)建議，他在1987年的《鋼結(jié)構(gòu)》中詳細(xì)闡述了...
中文翻譯英語文章 The USA Pavilion—Spirit of America 急!!!謝謝...
我們經(jīng)常聽到人們說起“美國精神”，但它到底是什么意思呢？讓我們走進(jìn)5月1日開幕的上海世博會(huì)，走進(jìn)那棟鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的美國展館，與美國精神來一個(gè)親密接觸。這棟展館以“迎接挑戰(zhàn)”的主題，它看起來很像一只老鷹伸展著翅膀歡迎人們的到來。為了迎合本屆世博會(huì)“城市，讓生活更美好”的口號(hào)，剛剛提及的挑戰(zhàn)會(huì)...
相關(guān)評(píng)說：
來安縣面錐： ______ The design of Block entitled rocker shaft technology and equipment design and CAD / CAM. From Chaoyang Diesel Engine Company Limited. This is designed to be completed in Block 195 engine rocker shaft mold design, Rocker Shaft Tower ...
來安縣面錐： ______ 淺析監(jiān)理對(duì)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程施工質(zhì)量的控制 【摘 要】 在建筑領(lǐng)域,鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程的優(yōu)越性越來越來被人們所認(rèn)同,質(zhì)量問題也越來越來引起人們的重視,加強(qiáng)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)工程施工質(zhì)量監(jiān)理工作,有現(xiàn)實(shí)意義和必要性. 【關(guān)鍵詞】鋼結(jié)構(gòu) 質(zhì)量 監(jiān)理 控制 ...
來安縣面錐： ______ 摘要:鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)在超高層建筑中由于自重大,柱子所占的建筑面積比率越來越大,在超高層建筑中采用鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)受到質(zhì)疑;同時(shí)高強(qiáng)度鋼材應(yīng)運(yùn)而生,在超高層建筑中采用部分鋼結(jié)構(gòu)或全鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的理論研究與設(shè)計(jì)建造可說是同步前...
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來安縣面錐： ______ 摘要: 我國實(shí)行改革開放政策以來,伴隨國家經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展的主旋律,輕鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建筑也在中國建筑領(lǐng)域-枝獨(dú)秀 得到迅猛發(fā)展.-方面已建成了大量的輕鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建筑,另一方面也成長了一大批較有規(guī)模的輕鋼結(jié)構(gòu)建設(shè)企業(yè),并且在技術(shù)領(lǐng)域逐步形成了...
來安縣面錐： ______ 某毛紡廠建設(shè)工程,由英國某紡織企業(yè)出資85%,中國某省紡織工業(yè)總公司出資15%成立的合資企業(yè)(以下簡稱A方),總投資約為1800萬美元,總建筑面積22610平方米,其中土建總投資為3000多萬元人民...
